The German term (, literally "culture struggle") refers mainly to state sanctioned religious and ethnic persecution of Catholics in German Empire, although the term is used sometimes in regards to events in other countries. With the rise of nationalism in Prussian dominated German Empire, Catholics and ethnic minorities such as Poles were portrayed as enemies of state, and threat. As a result, the German state enacted under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck several discriminatory measures against them. The anti-Polish thrust inherent in these actions is an important difference between Kulturkampf in Germany, and conflicts between state and Church in other countries. Positive outcomes of this bitter struggle include the introduction of civil marriage, state supervision in the public schooling system and a larger degree of separation between church and state.